About
From the perspective of Systems Science the notion of a "system" is seen as a reaction to reductionistic approaches applied in many scientific disciplines. It represents the idea of a "whole" as the unit of scientific analysis and it implies the existence of "emergent properties" which are not reducible to its parts.
A system may be defined in a structural way as composed of elements and their relations. We may also see it as something that is able to maintain its identity in an evolving environment.
Closely related to Systems Science is Cybernetics which uses a similar framework and terminology. Furthermore it has developed its proper concepts, e.g. "black box", "feedback", "regulation", "variety", or "recursion". According to Norbert Wiener, a founder of the Cybernetics movement, it may be defined as the science of communication and control in dynamic systems. It may also be viewed as the science of effective organization according to Stafford Beer.
As S. Brand (1980) puts it:
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"Cybernetics is the discipline of whole systems thinking ... A whole system is a living system is a learning system."
Purpose
The use of systems and cybernetic approaches is not restricted to a special scientific discipline. In fact, they may be viewed as a metadiscipline.
Systems Science and Cybernetics provide a framework for describing and explaining personal experience. The very purpose of Cybernetics is to understand these processes of control and communication in natural and social reality.
Out of these descriptions we may also get normative advices which deliver guidelines for designing and managing these phenomena.
Description
Like in many other disciplines, in Systems Science we may distinguish two different epistemological streams. A more positivistic or "hard" one which considers natural and social reality as being independent of any influences exerted by an observer. On the other hand there is a more phenomenological, hermeneutic, or "soft" one that puts much emphasis on the influence of an observer who is defining the system under study mostly from his own point of view.
The basic cybernetic model is that of regulating a black box through feedback. Information is transmitted about a possible divergence form a desired goal and a correcting action is taken. Thus we can see that communication is crucial for control.
According to Heinz von Foerster we may destinguish between first and second order cybernetics. It represents a historical destinction as first order cybernetics is the older one, and its focus is on explaining stability, adaptability, equilibrium in various systems. Second order cybernetics on the other hand is centering on the influence of the observer, of dynamically evolving problems.
According to Frederic Vester we also should distinguish between the more technically understood cybernetics (as often practiced in economy) and the biocybernetics of living systems. Here, the Ôhelmsman' of a feedback cycle and its guide values are not Ôgovering' from outside but are part of the interwoven system being themselves biocybernetic rules.
Here's a more comprehensive ![[WWW]](/wiki/classic/img/moin-www.png){kind=small}
description of the field.
Detailed Examples
[Organizational & Management Cybernetics] is about designing structures and controlling social system behavior.
General Systems Theory searches for invariances characterizing different kinds of systems. (a page to appear soon!)
Documentsv
in English:
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W. Ross Asbhy, An Introduction to Cybernetics, London (Beccles, Colchester) 1975
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Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory, New York 1968
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Peter Checkland, Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Chichester (Wiley) 1981
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Heinz v. Foerster, Principles of Self-Organization - In a Socio-Managerial Context, in: Ulrich, Probst (eds.), Self - Organization and Management of Social Systems, Insights, Promises, Doubts, and Questions, Berlin (Springer) 1984, pp. 132-147.
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Humberto R. Maturana, Francisco J. Varela, Tree of Knowledge, Shambala 1987
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F.A. Stowell, D. West, J.G. Howell (eds.), Systems Science, Addressing Global Issues, New York, London 1993
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Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, Cambridge 1948, 1961, 2nd edn., 7th printing, 1994
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F. Vester, The biocybernetic approach to understand and plan our environment, in: T.S. Bakshi and Z. Naveh, Environmental Education, Plenum Publishing Corp., New York 1980.
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This is where you find some
abstracts of important texts in the field.
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At the University of Colorado at Denver's School of Education you find a bibliography on
Cybernetics, Systems Theory and Complexity.
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Here's your access to
Kybernetes Journal.
Organizations
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There is a wide range of
cybernetic societies and groups related to cybernetics.
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The
Dutch Institute of System and Control forms an academic discipline that originates from the fields of electrical and mechanical engineering and mathematics.
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The
German Society for Economic and Social Cybernetics has a page with current and backlog information on its conferences and projects.
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The Study Group for Biology and Environment of Frederic Vester publishes a wide range of books, films, software, cybernetic studies and Ôedutainment' mostly in german (and 9 other languages except english!).
Projects
One of the most sophisticated and well elaborated projects on Cybernetics and Systems Science is the Principia Cybernetica Project where you get a good survey of the field.
More about Systems Science and many other systemic topics at the Systemic University on the Net.
The Cybernetic Vision Research Group is developing approaches to neural networks and neurophysics.
Education
A course to understand and use systems approaches and some literature can be found at MSc - Systems Theory.
The University of Southern California has a Cybernetics Program.
"ecopolicy¨" by F. Vester is a simulation game on CD-ROM (german) or PC (english) widely used in workshops as Ôedutainment'-software to study cybernetic feedback effects.
The new Fachhochschule Oensingen/CH-Solothurn is offering a holistic engineering education by project studying using the Sensitivity Model as structural basis.
People
The Who is who in Cybernetics and Systems Theory, and more about Systems Thinkers.
Some other biographies on well-known cyberneticians and system thinkers are provided at SUN - biographies.
Here's more information about Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a co-founder of the systems field.
More Resources
Discussions on control theory can be found at Metasystem Control.
Consciousness and Cybernetics lets you enter an interesting sideline.
Alan Scrivener provides a Curriculum for Cybernetics and Systems Theory.
Systems Thinking Practice
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